Parameters for Describing the Consonants of English

 When we speak English, we use many different consonant sounds. These are sounds like /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /m/, /n/ and /ʃ/. A consonant is usually made when the air from the lungs is blocked, stopped or squeezed somewhere in the mouth or throat.

Linguists describe consonants by asking three simple questions:

1. Is the sound voiced or voiceless?

This means: Do the vocal cords vibrate when we say the sound?

Put your fingers gently on your throat and say /z/ as in zoo. You should feel a vibration. That means /z/ is a voiced sound.

Now say /s/ as in see. You should not feel the same vibration. That means /s/ is a voiceless sound.

Some English sounds come in pairs. They are made in almost the same way, but one is voiced and the other is voiceless.

Voiceless sound	Voiced sound	Examples
/p/	/b/	pin /pɪn/ — bin /bɪn/
/t/	/d/	ten /ten/ — den /den/
/k/	/ɡ/	coat /kəʊt/ — goat /ɡəʊt/
/f/	/v/	fan /fæn/ — van /væn/
/s/	/z/	sip /sɪp/ — zip /zɪp/

This difference matters because changing one sound can change the meaning of a word. For example, pin and bin are different words because /p/ and /b/ are different sounds.

2. Where is the sound made in the mouth?

This is called the place of articulation. It simply means the part of the mouth used to make the sound.

Sounds made with both lips

Some sounds are made by bringing the two lips together.

Sound	Example
/p/	pen /pen/
/b/	bat /bæt/
/m/	man /mæn/

These are called bilabial sounds. “Bi” means two, and “labial” means lips.

Sounds made with the lips and teeth

Some sounds are made with the lower lip and the upper teeth.

Sound	Example
/f/	fish /fɪʃ/
/v/	van /væn/

These are called labiodental sounds.

Sounds made with the tongue and teeth

Some sounds are made when the tongue touches or comes close to the teeth.

Sound	Example
/θ/	thin /θɪn/
/ð/	this /ðɪs/

These are the two sounds often written as th in English. The sound in thin is /θ/, while the sound in this is /ð/.

Sounds made near the ridge behind the teeth

The small hard area just behind your upper front teeth is called the alveolar ridge. Many English consonants are made there.

Sound	Example
/t/	top /tɒp/
/d/	dog /dɒɡ/
/s/	sit /sɪt/
/z/	zoo /zuː/
/n/	no /nəʊ/
/l/	lip /lɪp/

These sounds are very common in English.

Sounds made further back in the mouth

Some consonants are made further back, near the roof of the mouth or the soft part at the back of the mouth.

Sound	Example
/ʃ/	shoe /ʃuː/
/ʒ/	vision /ˈvɪʒən/
/tʃ/	chair /tʃeə/
/dʒ/	judge /dʒʌdʒ/
/j/	yes /jes/
/k/	cat /kæt/
/ɡ/	go /ɡəʊ/
/ŋ/	sing /sɪŋ/

The sound /ŋ/ is the final sound in sing. It is written with the letters ng, but it is one sound.

Sound made in the throat

English also has the sound /h/, as in hat /hæt/. This sound is made in the throat area.

3. How is the sound made?

This is called the manner of articulation. It means the way the air moves when we make the sound.

Stop sounds

Some sounds are made by stopping the air completely and then releasing it.

Sound	Example
/p/	pen /pen/
/b/	bat /bæt/
/t/	top /tɒp/
/d/	dog /dɒɡ/
/k/	cat /kæt/
/ɡ/	go /ɡəʊ/

These sounds are called stops or plosives.

Friction sounds

Some sounds are made by squeezing the air through a narrow space. This creates a kind of friction or hissing sound.

Sound	Example
/f/	fish /fɪʃ/
/v/	van /væn/
/θ/	thin /θɪn/
/ð/	this /ðɪs/
/s/	see /siː/
/z/	zoo /zuː/
/ʃ/	shoe /ʃuː/
/ʒ/	vision /ˈvɪʒən/
/h/	hat /hæt/

These are called fricatives.

Mixed sounds

Two English consonants begin like stop sounds and end like friction sounds.

Sound	Example
/tʃ/	chair /tʃeə/
/dʒ/	judge /dʒʌdʒ/

These are called affricates.

Nose sounds

Some sounds are made when air passes through the nose.

Sound	Example
/m/	man /mæn/
/n/	no /nəʊ/
/ŋ/	sing /sɪŋ/

These are called nasal sounds.

Smooth sounds

Some consonants are made with very little blocking of the air. The air flows smoothly.

Sound	Example
/l/	lip /lɪp/
/r/ or /ɹ/	red /red/
/j/	yes /jes/
/w/	wet /wet/

These are called approximants. In ordinary English teaching, /r/ is commonly used for the sound in red, though /ɹ/ is more precise in phonetics.

The 24 consonant sounds of English

Many descriptions of English list 24 consonant sounds:

/p, b, t, d, k, ɡ, f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h, tʃ, dʒ, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, w/

These sounds may be pronounced a little differently depending on a person’s accent. For example, British, American, Nigerian and Australian speakers may not pronounce every sound in exactly the same way. Still, the basic system is largely the same.

Why this matters

Knowing how consonants are made helps us understand pronunciation better. It also helps learners see that English spelling and English sound are not always the same.

For example, the spelling th can be pronounced in two ways:

• thin /θɪn/
• this /ðɪs/

Also, the spelling ng in sing represents one sound: /ŋ/.

So, describing consonants is not just for linguists. It is useful for teachers, students, public speakers, language learners and anyone who wants to speak more clearly.

Conclusion

English consonants can be described by answering three simple questions:

First, is the sound voiced or voiceless?

Second, where is the sound made in the mouth?

Third, how does the air move when the sound is made?

For example, /p/ is a voiceless sound made with both lips. /b/ is similar, but it is voiced. /s/ is a voiceless hissing sound, while /z/ is its voiced partner. /m/, /n/ and /ŋ/ are nose sounds.

Once we understand these simple ideas, English pronunciation becomes easier to explain, teach and learn.

References

International Phonetic Association. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press.

Ladefoged, P., & Johnson, K. (2014). A course in phonetics (7th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology: A practical course (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.